CHAPTER 7
Early Messiahs
IN THE FIRST FEW CENTURIES after the completion of the Bible, the concept of the messiah developed as a joining of the anointed priest, prophet, and king in one figure who would lead the people to redemption and salvation from their sufferings in the world. For some Jews in the first century, Jesus fulfilled that ideal. A century later, others looked to Bar Kokhba, who promised liberation on the political level. Associated with the struggle for political liberation was the idea that all history was headed towards the apocalypse, the day of catastrophe, when terrible worldly conditions would lead to a struggle between the forces of good and the forces of evil. This “end of days” was associated with the messianic period, when the forces of good – led by a divinely appointed leader – would prevail.
Because the dream of national, worldly liberation was intertwined with spiritual redemption in many periods of Jewish history, many of the messiah figures played both roles – the spiritual and political – the esoteric and exoteric. This is what we find in the numerous messiahs who appeared in Persia and Arabia among the Jewish diaspora of the pre-Islamic and Islamic period. We know of them from accounts written by Jewish and non-Jewish observers of the period.
These messiahs may have been associated with the Mourners of Zion, a subgroup within the Jewish community that gave expression to the aspiration for a miraculous return to the Holy Land, which was linked with the legend of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel who would reappear and join the returning masses. The Mourners were vegetarian and did not drink wine; they engaged in fasting in order to bring about the return to the Holy Land. The Mourners drew a sharp distinction between man’s spiritual and physical tendencies. Their religious practices tended to be more strict and ascetic than mainstream rabbinic Judaism and they rejected the centralized authority of the Babylonian rabbis, though not totally cutting themselves off from it. The group first appeared during the Roman period and came to the forefront again in Persia and other nearby countries after the Muslim conquest.
Like the Mourners, most of these messiahs taught vegetarianism and abstinence from alcoholic drinks, as well as the immortality of the soul. On the other hand, they were also militants with a local, rural base; their purpose was to lead their followers back to the Holy Land and conquer other peoples. They generally associated themselves with Moses, whom they called the Faithful Shepherd, and they connected their mission with the story of the Exodus.
All these messiahs taught the concept of a lineage of prophets continuing into their own time, who had the authority to reform religious practice. In fact, they asserted that Jesus and Muhammad were the prophets for their time, and that the prophetic lineage always continued. They also taught that their teachings superseded the laws laid down by the rabbis of Babylonia.
In this section, we will focus on the eighth-century Persian messiahs Abu Isa and Yudghan. They appeared during a period of social upheaval, of conflict between Sunni and Shiite, when Islam had not yet defeated Christianity.
Abu Isa
Originally named Yits’hak ben Ya’akov, Abu Isa lived near Isfahan in
the eighth century. His name Abu Isa contains the Arabic form of the
name “Jesus.” He was also called Obadyah (God’s servant), hearkening
back to the “servant of God” mentioned in Isaiah. Miracles were
associated with his selection by God as the messiah. An uneducated,
illiterate tailor, he was able to write spiritual books without being
taught to read or write. After leading a revolt against the Muslim
government, he was killed. His followers believed that he was not dead
but hiding in a secret cave – in “incubation” (suspended animation).
Here is an account of his life by Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Qirqisani, in
The Book of Lights and Watchtowers [kitab al-anwar
wal-marakib], which was written in early tenth-century Persia:
We said above that Abu Isa proclaimed himself a prophet; [he composed works even though he was illiterate] and this could only have been by prophecy. As far as his teachings and ideas go: he prohibited divorce, as did the Sadducees and the Christians; he instituted seven prayer services a day, drawing upon the words of David: “I praise you seven times a day” (Psalms 119:164); he prohibited the eating of flesh and the drinking of distilled liquors, not on the basis of scripture but because God ordered him to do so, through prophecy.… He said that God told him to pray the Eighteen Benedictions and the passages of the Shema, according to rabbanite [rabbinical] practice. But he did this only to attract the masses of the people and the leadership to him. The rabbanites and the public leaders reject the Issuniyim [followers of Isa] but do not identify them with the followers of Anan [ben David] and the Karaites.*
…Abu Isa confessed the prophetic nature of Yeshu ben Miriam [Jesus] and that of the Instructor of the Moslems [Muhammad] and said that each of them was sent [by God] to his people. He ordered [his own disciples] to read the Gospels and the Koran and to gain an understanding of their meanings. He said that the Christians and Moslems are required to observe their faiths just as the Jews are required to observe the one they claim.162
It is important to note that by accepting Jesus and Muhammad, he was teaching that prophecy was not restricted to any particular place, people, time, or religion.
Another interesting account of Abu Isa’s life was written in 1127 by the Muslim writer Abulfatah Muhammad al-Shahrastani, in his Book of Beliefs and Sects of Opinions:
The Issiyim are so called after Abu Isa Isak ben Ya’akov of Isfahan who was also known as Oved Elohim: that is, “one who worships God.” He lived during the time of al-Mansur and his revelation began during the time of the last Umayyad king, Marwan ibn Mahmad al-Himar. Many Jews followed him. They say that he displayed signs and wonders. They believe that he marked a line around his men with a branch of myrtle when embattled and said to them, “Stay within this circle and the enemy’s sword cannot touch you.” And when his enemies approached the circle they retreated because they were afraid of the amulet or of the charm he used.*
Then Abu Isa alone crossed over the line on his horse and fought the Muslims and killed many. Then he went to the tribes of Moses the son of Amram who lived beyond the wastelands in order to preach the word of God to them. They say that after he attacked the forces of al-Mansur at Regaes, he was killed together with his men.
Abu Isa claimed that he was the emissary and prophet of the expected messiah, and he believed that the messiah had five emissaries who preceded him one after another. He believed, moreover, that God spoke to him and ordered him to redeem the Jews from the evil nations and their villainous kings. He also believed that the messiah is the most select of humans and that he himself was superior to the prophets who preceded him. He elevated the status of the Shepherd [Moses] and was of the opinion that the Shepherd was also the messiah.
In his writing he annulled the sacrifices and forbade the eating of any animal, bird, or beast. He ordered ten prayers a day and decreed their times. He departed from many of the important commandments of the written Torah.163
Yudghan and Mushka
Abu Isa’s disciple and successor, Yudghan (Yehuda) continued his
master’s spiritual ministry. Accounts by al-Qirqisani and al-Shahrastani
attest to his spiritual focus in the tradition of the biblical prophets.
He was able to frame his teachings within the context of traditional
Judaism by asserting that the Torah has both inner (esoteric) and outer
(exoteric) meanings, and that he had the ability to interpret the true
inner meaning through intuition. He also taught the principle that
punishment and reward are dependent on our own actions. He was followed
by Mushka, another messiah about whom little is known. Mushka was slain
in battle.
Account by al-Qirqisani
Yudghan [called by his followers “the Shepherd,” meaning that he was the shepherd of the people of Israel] also proclaimed himself a prophet, and his disciples say that he is the messiah and lives yet, and they look forward to his return. The people of Yudghan forbid the eating of meat and the drinking of distilled liquors and engage in much prayer and fasting. And they say that the Sabbaths and holy days have been annulled in this era and are only remembrances. Some of the Karaites join them in this opinion.164Account by al-Shahrastani
[The name of this sect] comes from Yudghan of Hamadan, also known as Yehuda. He preached asceticism and earnest prayer, forbade the eating of meat and the drinking of liquor. Among those things that are passed on in his name is also his esteem for the degree of the Shepherd.… And he thought that the Torah has an inner and outer meaning, … as opposed to the explanations of other Jews. He differed from them as well in his opposition to the use of logical analogy [for interpreting Scripture] and in his belief in free will, and was of the opinion that humans act as they wish. He was one of those who found reward and punishment a [theological] necessity.…The followers of Mushka are to be accounted with them [the followers of Yudghan]. [Mushka] followed the teaching of Yudghan, except that he supported opposition to those whose opinions differed from his and was in favor of warring against them. He rode at the head of nineteen men and was slain near Qum. About one of the sects of the Mushkanites it is said that they recognized the prophecy of the Elect One [Muhammad] as valid for the Arabs and other peoples, other than the Jews, since they already had a religion and a book that had come to them revealed by God.165
His assertion that the Torah has an inner and outer meaning is interesting, as it anticipates the later mystical teachings of Kabbalah, which looks for deeper symbolic meanings in the ordinary texts or events of life. The belief in reward and punishment also gives a good rationale for a vegetarian diet.
The Karaites were another messianic group who started after the eighth century, but in totally rejecting the authority of rabbinic Judaism they embarked on their own path and eventually became a separate sect, and were sometimes even treated as a separate religion. Anan ben David was their messiah.
Other early messianic figures were a self-declared messiah named Sirenus in eighth-century Syria, and David Alroy (al-Ruhi), from Kurdistan in the early twelfth century. In the wake of the Crusades, Alroy led an armed insurrection bent on the redemption of the Jews in Persia’s borderlands and a return to the Holy Land. Alroy was well-educated in Islamic culture, mysticism, law, Arabic language, philosophy, and the sciences. He was known as a miracle-worker and magician, but it is difficult to know if he brought any distinctively spiritual teaching. It should be remembered that throughout Jewish history, the religious authorities have generally held a negative view of messianic individuals and portrayed them as swindlers and charlatans.